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IN SUMMARY...
1. Origins of the term and early meanings |
Originally referring to a simple percussion instrument, macumba evolved into a generic term to talk about rites coming from Africa, between syncretism and rumors of black magic. Yet behind this vague label lie rich traditions marginalized by society, each carrying a spiritual and cultural heritage.
1. Origins of the term and early meanings
The word macumba comes from Africa, where it did not initially have the mystical connotation it carries today. According to several linguistic sources, macumba comes from a Bantu language of Angola (Kimbundu), in which ma'kôba refers to an African percussion instrument similar to the reco-reco. In other words, originally, macumba was a musical instrument – a kind of wooden rattle or clapper – used during rituals. In colonial and post-colonial Brazil, this term was thus applied to this instrument imported by African slaves, and by extension, the macumbeiro was the musician who played it.
Traditional Macumba. Source: Wikipedia
However, the meaning of the word did not remain limited to the instrument for long. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, macumba broadened to more generally designate Afro-Brazilian religious practices. Some researchers suggest another possible etymology, this time from Kikongo (a language of Congo): the term kumba, meaning "sorcerer" or referring to magical practices. Linguist Antenor Nascentes proposed an origin from dikumba ("padlock" in Kimbundu), referring to secret ceremonies of "body closure." In any case, these different hypotheses reflect a reality: by the turn of the 20th century, “macumba” came to designate not only an instrument but also a set of rituals and spiritual practices. This is a notable semantic shift: the public began to associate the instrument’s name with the ceremonies where it was played, then with the cults in general.
2. A generic term for Afro-Brazilian cults
In Brazil, macumba quickly became a generic term encompassing various Afro-Brazilian cults, especially in the Rio de Janeiro region. For many Brazilians, especially non-initiates, this word came to mean "anything related to Afro religions," without distinguishing specific traditions. Thus, it was not uncommon to say that a person "does macumba" to mean they practice some Afro-Brazilian religion. Similarly, the plural “macumbas” was used to refer to these Afro cults originating from West Africa or Angola and their regional variants.
Altar in Umbanda. Source: Flickr
In reality, macumba is not a single formal religion but a catch-all word attached to several distinct Afro-Brazilian traditions. Among these are notably candomblé, umbanda, quimbanda, and batuque, each with their own rites and deities. For example, in Bahia, candomblé is practiced (cult of the Yoruba orixás), while in Recife, a similar cult is called Xangô, and in Rio Grande do Sul, the orixás cult is called batuque. The term macumba was especially popular in Rio de Janeiro to designate all these practices. From the early 20th century, people spoke of “macumbas cariocas” (i.e., from Rio) to refer to local Afro-Brazilian cults. These Rio macumbas were syncretic religions mixing several influences: Bantu heritage from Angola (e.g., the cabula cult), Yoruba orixás cult brought by slaves from Nigeria and Benin, indigenous Amerindian practices (pajelança, etc.), as well as elements borrowed from popular Catholicism and European spiritism. In this sense, “macumba” served as an umbrella term to describe a blend of Afro-Brazilian rites with multiple roots, as it existed particularly in Rio in the early 20th century.
Altar in Quimbanda
This evolution was noted by observers of the time. Folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo noted that around 1900, Cariocas (residents of Rio) still used the word “candomblé” generally to talk about these Afro-Brazilian cults, as was done in Bahia. But later, “the generic term ‘macumba’ imposed itself”, before being replaced later by other names like “kiumbanda” (quimbanda). Indeed, from the 1930s, the religion called Umbanda institutionalized in Rio de Janeiro, gradually distinguishing itself from the vague term macumba. Umbanda offered a more organized and respectable framework for these practices, while the word macumba remained used to vaguely designate “traditional” or non-Christianized rituals. Quimbanda came to more specifically designate rites oriented towards spiritual magic (associated with the cult of the spirits of Exu), as opposed to the more “light” rites of Umbanda. These terminological evolutions show that the landscape of Afro-Brazilian religions gradually clarified, even if in everyday language, macumba remained a convenient catch-all.
3. A controversial and often pejorative word
Although the term macumba was widely used, it is controversial, imprecise, and carries a negative connotation. In the mouths of many Brazilians, “macumba” is used almost as a synonym for witchcraft or black magic. Historically, it has been associated with ideas of charlatanism or malevolent occult practices. For example, from the 1920s, Christian churches in Brazil – especially the Catholic Church and later some evangelical currents – led virulent campaigns against macumba, labeling it a “profane” and demonic cult, contrary to the laws of God. This discourse entrenched the idea that macumba rhymes with “voodoo” or “devil worship” in the eyes of part of the population, reinforcing prejudices.
Ritual offering for Exu
The media and popular culture also perpetuated this sultry image. In the mid-20th century, for example, the word appeared in pejorative expressions like “chuta que é macumba!” (“kick it, it’s macumba!”), a phrase mockingly shouted when seeing an offering at a street corner. This injunction, seemingly harmless, actually encourages the desecration of an Afro-Brazilian ritual – a clearly intolerant gesture on a religious level. Nowadays, such attitudes are punished by Brazilian law, as they are considered racism or religious intolerance (the 1997 legislation punishes offenses against African-origin cults on the same level as racial discrimination).
Why has macumba become such a negatively charged word? Much of the answer lies in structural racism in Brazil. As anthropologist and babalorixá Rodney William points out, everything associated with Black culture in Brazil has long been devalued or stigmatized. Afro-Brazilian religions were no exception: in the imagination of colonial and then modern society, candomblé or umbanda were relegated to the status of “savage practices” or “superstitions of backward people.” Capoeira was called a “thug’s trick,” samba “music of rascals,” and macumba “witchcraft of ill-intentioned ignorants.” This systematic discredit was part of a broader process of demonizing African culture. For example, the spiritual entity Exu (messenger god in candomblé) was caricatured as the devil through a Christian lens, which actually reflects the demonization of Black people themselves, explains Rodney William. In other words, treating these religions as “macumba” in a contemptuous tone reflects a legacy of racial and cultural prejudices.
Moreover, the vagueness of the term fueled misuse. Since macumba does not refer to any established Church or precise dogma, it was used indiscriminately to designate anything and everything – from authentic sacred rituals to mercantile superstition. For example, some authors called charlatans who exploited people’s credulity by promising spells and miracles for money macumbeiros. At the same time, ordinary people called “macumba” the act of leaving ritual offerings at a crossroads at night, intending to cast a spell or ward off evil. These offerings (called despachos when left outside the temple) are typically dedicated to Exu and consist of lit candles, cachaça (sugarcane spirit), chili peppers, farofa (manioc flour), all arranged in a bowl or plate in the street. To the general public, this kind of scene fuels the reputation of “black magic” surrounding macumba. Yet it should be noted that these magic practices represent only a small facet of Afro-Brazilian cults and are even discouraged by most candomblé or umbanda priests. Reducing macumba to these occult acts is to misunderstand the richness and spirituality of these religions.
4. Changing perceptions and reclaiming the term
Over time, the perception of macumba has evolved and gained nuance. On one hand, the term remained pejorative in everyday language for much of the 20th century, conveying mystery and fear. In Brazilian literature, for example, macumba ceremonies are mentioned sometimes exotically, sometimes critically. The famous writer Mário de Andrade, in his novel Macunaíma (1928), describes a “macumba for Exu” in Rio at the famous Tia Ciata – an Afro-Brazilian priestess and cook – in the presence of various artists and poets of the time. This literary testimony shows that by the late 1920s, the intellectual high society was interested in these rituals called macumba. Similarly, in the 1930s-40s, the word appears in song titles recorded in Rio: people danced to macumba points like “Macumba (Ponto de Ogum)” or “Macumba de Oxóssi”, popularized by samba musicians of the era. These historical examples attest that the term macumba was commonly used to designate Afro-Brazilian ritual songs and gatherings – especially in Rio de Janeiro, the birthplace of umbanda. In other words, in the 1930s context, talking about macumba was not necessarily an insult: it could simply refer to Afro-Brazilian ceremonies in general, known to all (if only by reputation).
Nevertheless, this relative normalization coexisted with contempt and persecution. During the first half of the 20th century, Afro-Brazilian cults – often broadly labeled as macumba – were subject to police repression and public mockery. Authorities frequently seized ritual objects (atabaques, statues, charms, etc.) during raids in terreiros and displayed these “macumba objects” as trophies to discourage practices deemed superstitious. The stigmatization was such that many followers practiced their rituals in secret to avoid arrest or ridicule.
From the 1970s and especially at the end of the 20th century, however, a movement of recognition and identity pride around Afro-Brazilian religions emerged. The word macumba, despite its negative charge, began to be claimed by some practitioners as a form of reclaiming. “Macumbeiro” – once an insult – became a nickname proudly claimed by some initiates, similar to formerly pejorative terms like “nègre” or “black” that have been positively reinvested by Afro-descendants. As Rodney William explains, only a member of these religious communities can use this word positively: “there was an unspoken rule: only a macumbeiro could call another macumbeiro macumbeiro.” Among initiates, using this term was a way to claim solidarity and a shared grounding. By embracing this once disparaging label, practitioners seek to turn the stigma around and assert their “territory of resistance.” Nowadays, it is not uncommon to hear in follower circles phrases like “com orgulho, sou macumbeiro” (“I am macumbeiro and proud to be so”). This reversal of meaning is part of the broader struggle against racism and for the valorization of Afro-Brazilian heritage.
However, this rehabilitation of the word remains internal to the concerned communities. Anthropologists and religious leaders generally advise non-practitioners to avoid using the term macumba to talk about these religions, due to its still strong pejorative baggage. It is more correct and respectful to name each religion by its proper name: say candomblé cult, umbanda ritual, etc., just as one would distinguish between Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, etc. “People should refer to candomblé, umbanda, and other Afro cults the same way they talk about other religions: with respect,” insists Rodney William. Because even if the term macumba has been partly “re-signified” positively by initiates themselves, its use by outsiders can still be perceived as a reductive generalization or a sign of disrespect.
Thus, the history of macumba is that of a word that grew at the meeting of two worlds, overflowing its initial meaning to encompass a whole mosaic of Afro-Brazilian cults. Between stigmatization and reclaiming, it reflects the prejudices and resilience of Afro-descendant communities. Understanding its true scope means first learning to distinguish each tradition by its name, with the respect and curiosity they deserve. This is how the approach of calling candomblé, umbanda, or quimbanda by their true identity makes sense, and lets macumba return to its musical roots: a distant echo still resonating in the drums of Brazil.
