Santería is one of those traditions people hear about without really knowing what it encompasses. It is sometimes associated with drums, offerings, African beliefs, or Catholic saints. But between preconceived notions and vague images, it is hard to grasp its reality. On closer examination, however, one discovers a coherent religion, rich in symbols, rituals, and history. A tradition forged through hardship, and still very much alive in the daily lives of many believers in Cuba and beyond. Exploration.
1. The Yoruba cradle
Santería has its roots in the traditional religion of the Yoruba people of West Africa. Long before its arrival in the Caribbean, this ancestral faith flourished in the kingdoms of present-day southern Nigeria and Benin. At the heart of Yoruba cosmology is a unique creator god, Olodumare, the source of all spiritual energy, who delegates to the orishas – intermediary deities linked to the forces of nature – the task of guiding human destiny. Each orisha embodies an aspect of the natural world: for example, Shango rules over thunder and fire, Yemayá over the oceans, Ochún over fresh waters and love, to name just a few. These orishas protect mortals and ensure that each fulfills the destiny (ori) assigned to them. If one strays, the soul of the deceased may, according to tradition, return to earth through reincarnation to complete its fulfillment. Rich in myths, dances, and songs, the Yoruba religion is passed down orally from generation to generation, marked by bata drums and ritual greetings to the orishas.
Representation of the Orishas
In the 16th century, the history of this religion takes a turn. The Yorubas, known for their rich culture, are violently torn from their native lands by the transatlantic slave trade. Thousands of men and women are enslaved and sent to the plantations of the New World. Among the receiving colonies, Cuba early on receives Yoruba captives: brought to the island from the 16th century, then in successive waves until the 19th century, they carry in their memories the language, songs, and gods of their African homeland. Packed into ships, these exiles carry with them an intangible treasure – their beliefs and rites – that will survive against all odds on Cuban soil.
2. From Africa to Cuba, the birth of a syncretic cult
From the 17th to the 19th century, Cuba became one of the major centers of the slave trade in the Caribbean. On sugarcane plantations and in colonial homes, Yoruba slaves (called Lucumí in Cuba) found themselves mixed with other deported African ethnic groups, such as the Congos or the Carabalís. This forced cohabitation led to a religious blending: far from their land, deprived of their temples, captives from various African nations saw their respective traditions converge and intertwine. An original Afro-Cuban cult was born where Yoruba practices dominate, while incorporating certain elements of other African rites present in Cuba. But the major challenge for these devotees was to preserve their faith under the watchful eye of a Catholic colonial master intolerant of what he considered "pagan idolatries."
Officially, only the Catholic religion is allowed in the Spanish colony. The slaves therefore have to be clever to continue honoring their orishas. At night, in the barracks or sheltered in the forests, they softly sing the praises of Ochún or Babalú Ayé. On Sundays, they are forced to attend mass: they observe the church saints and, in secret, identify each one with one of their gods. Saint Barbara, draped in red and armed with a sword, thus becomes the mask of the powerful Shango, master of storms. The Virgin of Charity, the patron saint of Cuba, is associated with the gentle Ochún, goddess of rivers and love. Saint Lazarus, the beggar covered in sores, evokes Babalú Ayé, deity of diseases and healings. Gradually, a true symbolic equivalence is woven between the Catholic pantheon and the Yoruba pantheon.
Santero altar
According to oral tradition, Yoruba slaves pretended to worship saints to better hide the cult of their orishas behind these Christian figures. On Saint Barbara's night, they lit red candles not only for the Christian martyr but especially for Shango, her African alter ego, secretly invoking the god of thunder. This trick allowed them to celebrate their ancestral festivals under the cover of Catholic festivities. However, historical research suggests that syncretism was also actively encouraged by the colonial Church itself. Faced with the persistence of African cults, ecclesiastical authorities chose to channel them rather than eradicate them completely. A papal synod in 1687 recommended priests to "adjust African beliefs to Catholic practices," and a royal edict in 1792 even ordered slave brotherhoods (the African cabildos) to officially worship a Catholic saint equivalent to each orisha. By imposing these substitutions, the Church forced slaves to baptize their gods under Christian names. Certainly, building chapels dedicated to a patron saint for each group of slaves was costly, and the Spanish were reluctant to such expenses. But essentially, this policy aimed to give a Christian facade to African devotions, hoping to make them more acceptable in colonial society.
It was in this crucible of oppression and ingenuity that Santería was born. The Spaniards, surprised to see these slaves give so much importance to the saints (santos in Spanish), mockingly nicknamed their cult “santería”, meaning the "cult of the saints." The term was meant to be derogatory, mocking what they saw as superstitious devotion. Yet behind the pious image of statuettes of the Virgin or Saint Anthony, the slaves continued to pray to their African orishas. They preferred to call their religion Regla de Ocha (the "rule of the orishas") or simply Lukumí, after their nation of origin. In any case, over time, a true Afro-Catholic syncretism developed in Cuba: without denying the imposed Catholic veneer, the former slaves integrated the saints into their spiritual world, enriching their rites instead of abandoning them.
Statue of Saint Lazarus
From the mid-19th century, as slavery was coming to an end (it was abolished in Cuba in 1886), Santería had firmly established itself in Cuban popular culture. Mutual aid brotherhoods of freed Africans – grouped by their "nation" of origin – served as havens for these practices. In Havana, Matanzas, or Santiago, the cabildos of Yoruba, authorized during the colonial era to oversee slaves, became cultural societies after emancipation where Yoruba songs, ritual dances, and the worship of orishas behind the saints persisted. Officially, early 20th-century Republican Cuba remained a Catholic country, and the elite looked down on these ceremonies, labeling them brujería (witchcraft). Yet many modest Cubans – descendants of slaves or mixed-race – continued to turn to them to seek the protection of the orishas in their daily lives. Santería then remained largely clandestine or confined to the domestic sphere, discreetly passed down from parents to children, from spiritual godparents to godchildren.
3. An oppressed then affirmed cult in Cuba
With Fidel Castro's rise to power in 1959, Cuba entered an era of state atheism where any religious expression was suspect. During the first decades of the revolutionary regime, Santería, like the Catholic Church, faced diffuse repression: the new power associated these cults with "superstitions" contrary to the scientific spirit of socialism. Afro-Cuban ceremonies, already marginalized, were pushed even further into the shadows. Nevertheless, the faith of the santeros did not disappear. In the secrecy of homes, divinatory shells continued to be consulted and coconuts offered to the orishas. The communist government, mainly seeking to break the influence of the Catholic Church, half-tolerated these popular practices which it did not see as an immediate political threat. Thus, despite official disapproval, Santería survived in the intimacy of Cuban households throughout the 1960s and 70s.
A turning point occurred in the 1990s. Cuba, facing the post-USSR economic crisis, paradoxically opened up more in terms of religion. The regime relaxed its ideology: in 1992, it removed the reference to an atheist state from the Constitution to secularize the country. This opening benefited Afro-Cuban religions. Santería gradually emerged from the shadows and gained visibility. Religious societies were officially formed, such as the Yoruba Cultural Association of Cuba. Santero priests began traveling abroad, and ceremonies once secret were displayed at cultural events. The government itself eventually recognized Santería as an integral part of Cuban national heritage. In the 2000s, the promotion of Santería went beyond the religious sphere: the Cuban state highlighted it in festivals, cultural tourism, and exhibitions as a symbol of authentic cubanidad. This once-persecuted cult is now valued as an essential component of Cuban identity, alongside salsa music and Creole cuisine.
Couple of Cubans in traditional Santera attire
At the same time, within the Santería community itself, a process of re-Africanization is observed. Some priests and followers, concerned with legitimacy, claim a return to the African roots of the faith. They emphasize the purity of the Yoruba tradition passed down by the ancestors, purifying the rites of certain Catholic or Western influences that had been grafted over time. Meetings of babalawos (diviner priests) establish stricter protocols, and writings begin to codify what was mainly transmitted orally. However, this process of "orthodoxization" of Santería remains limited: there is no centralized Church nor fixed dogma. Each ilé or "house of the saint" retains its ritual particularities, inherited from its founder. Knowledge remains largely held by initiated elders, passed down during long learning ceremonies. For example, to become a priest (santero or babalawo), an aspirant must follow a long training path: study of orisha theology, self-taught learning of the Yoruba language – no school teaches it in Cuba, it must be learned "on the job" – and mastery of sacred drums, all guided by a demanding spiritual sponsor. "You don't become a priest overnight; it takes years of study and dedication," says Yasser, a babalawo from Havana, who spent a year dressed in white as a novice and then four years studying before officiating. This rigor does not prevent Santería from attracting more and more followers: today, the majority of Cubans, of all origins, practice in one way or another a rite inherited from Afro-Cuban religions (over 70% of the population according to some estimates). Far from being a marginal curiosity, the Santería faith deeply permeates contemporary Cuban society, from the daily life of popular neighborhoods to national artistic expressions.
4. The emblematic rituals of Santería
Despite its oral origins and the absence of written sacred texts, Santería has a rich and structured ritual corpus. Each ceremony is both an aesthetic and spiritual experience, intertwining music, dance, divination, and sacred offerings, with the aim of honoring the orishas and seeking their help.
4.1. Divination consultation with divinatory shells (diloggún)
Santería gives a central place to divination, the art of communicating with the spiritual world to obtain advice and insight. The preferred medium is a set of sixteen cauris shells (called diloggún), consecrated during a prior ritual. When the time for consultation comes – for example to guide a devotee facing a family problem or an important decision – the priest or priestess (santero or santera) sits facing the client, in front of a ritual mat. After invoking the orishas with prayers in the lucumí language, they hold the shells in their joined hands, concentrate, then throw them sharply onto the mat. The shells roll and some fall open side up, others closed.
Oracle reading by a santero priest. Source: Cubania
The pattern formed by the shells spread out like this – for example 4 open and 12 closed, or 7 open and 9 closed,... – corresponds to signs called odu in the Yoruba divinatory tradition. There are 256 possible combinations of odu, each carrying a body of legends, advice, and warnings that the priest must know by heart. An experienced santero will therefore "read" the message of the shells by interpreting the fallen odu, often complemented by a second throw to refine the meaning. The verdict of the consultation will indicate whether the energies of the moment are favorable (Iré) – a promise of success, health, prosperity – or on the contrary deficient (Osogbo) – signaling obstacles or imbalances to correct. In the latter case, the oracle will usually prescribe remedies in the form of ritual offerings to restore harmony. In Cuba, these shell divination sessions are part of daily life: before a wedding, to choose an auspicious date, or after a troubling dream, one will "make the letter" with a santero to know the will of the orishas and attract their goodwill.
4.2. Offerings and sacrifices to the orishas
In Santería, as in most Afro-descendant religions, the relationship with the divine is based on an exchange of gifts and attentions. Offerings – called ebo or addimú – are the way believers honor the orishas and receive their favors in return. These can take various forms: cooked foods, fruits, flowers, cigars, alcoholic drinks, and on important occasions, animal sacrifices. Each orisha has its preferences and symbols. For example, Ochún appreciates honey, oranges, and cinnamon, sweet offerings that reflect her gentleness. Changó prefers the rooster (preferably red) that can be sacrificed to him, as well as cassava, grilled plantains, or strong spiced rum – robust foods matching his fiery image. Yemayá will receive watermelons, fish, and dry white wine on the seashore. As for Babalú Ayé (syncretized with Saint Lazarus), it is common to offer him roasted corn, tobacco, or a small animal (like a chicken or pigeon) as an expiatory sacrifice. The ritual animal sacrifice indeed holds an essential place in major ceremonies: far from being an act of gratuitous cruelty, it is seen as a gift of life to the orishas, a way to nourish the deities with the vital energy (ashé) of the spilled blood. A goat, a rooster, or a dove, slaughtered according to a precise ritual and consecrated by prayer, thus become the bridge between the human and the divine. The meat is generally cooked and then shared among the participants, after reserving a symbolic portion for the orisha on the altar. This gesture strengthens the community bond while expressing gratitude to the invoked deity. It is important to note that Santería teaches great respect for the sacrificed animal: it is treated with care, and the sacrifice is only performed when necessary, by trained priests. Moreover, aside from sacrifices, non-bloody offerings are very common: a plate of fresh fruit, candies, or lighting a candle and incense in front of the home altar to greet the orisha protecting the house each morning.
4.3. The drum rite (toque de santo) and spiritual trance
Santería is above all a living ritual religion, where music and dance play a sacred role. Among the most spectacular celebrations is the bembé or toque de santo, the "saint's feast," during which an orisha is publicly invoked through drum and song. Imagine a warm afternoon on the outskirts of Matanzas: it is the birthday of an orisha or the culmination of an initiation, and a santera family organizes a community drum session. Three sacred drums carved from wood – the batá – are tuned and placed in front of the altar, each held by an experienced percussionist. As soon as hands strike the stretched skin, a rhythm fills the space. The singers chant liturgical songs in Yoruba in unison, passed down by memory for centuries. Each orisha corresponds to a specific rhythm and particular words. The participants present, dressed in white or in the colors of their tutelary orisha, begin to dance in a circle. Sweat beads on foreheads as the tempo quickens – it is much more than a concert, it is a collective prayer in drum language. According to tradition, these instruments are consecrated entities, capable of speaking and calling the gods. Through the rhythm, the orisha is implored to descend from the sky and join the celebration.
Drum rite. Source: Wikipedia
Little by little, the atmosphere reaches a point of intensity. The dancers closest to the drums – the elders or high-ranking initiates – perform the steps specific to the celebrated orisha, as each deity has its signature gestures. For Changó, arms are raised as if wielding an axe and mimicking lightning striking; for Yemayá, the arms undulate like waves, to name just two examples. Suddenly, one of the dancers lets out a loud cry and collapses convulsing in the center of the circle. Immediately, the drums change their rhythm and the singers double their energy: the orisha has taken possession of a body. It is said that the saint “mounted the horse” – the devotee being compared to a horse whose spirit is ridden by the orisha. The person in trance then enters an altered state: their eyes roll back and become milky white, their expression changes, and suddenly they embody the personality of the descended orisha. If it is Changó, they may brandish an axe and demand fire; if it is Ochún, they will laugh coquettishly while distributing honey. Through their mouth, it is believed that the deity itself is speaking. The other devotees respectfully approach to receive the blessing of the embodied orisha: they bow their heads, present objects to be touched and consecrated, or ask questions to receive direct advice. Meanwhile, the drums keep playing to maintain the presence of the orisha. The trance can last many minutes, sometimes over an hour, until the entity decides to leave the possessed body. This mediumistic trance experience is at the heart of santería spirituality: it materializes, for the duration of a dance, the tangible encounter between the human world and that of the orishas. It is a moment of intense fervor where faith moves out of the invisible realm to be lived physically, before everyone’s eyes. Once the ceremony is over, the drums are thanked with offerings and a large festive meal is shared, as these saints’ festivals are also moments of conviviality: abundant roasted pork, congrí rice, fried plantains, and other Cuban dishes are served, extending the celebration in a more earthly but equally sacred way.
4.4. The initiation and “birth” of a santero
Beyond occasional rituals, Santería is structured by a rigorous initiatory path. Becoming a follower – and even more so a priest – is not just an intellectual commitment: it is a true spiritual rebirth, marked by complex and highly symbolic ceremonies. The major initiation, called “making the saint” (in Spanish hacerse santo), consecrates a newcomer into the religion by installing a protective orisha in their life. It usually begins with a divinatory consultation that reveals which tutelary orisha claims this person as a son or daughter. An impulsive and courageous young man might be called by Changó, while a gentle and artistic woman might be chosen by Ochún. Once the guardian orisha is identified, the central ceremony of the kariocha (a Yoruba word meaning “putting the orisha on the head”) is organized, also called asiento (the “seat”) or coronación (the “coronation”). This initiatory ritual, which takes place over several days, is kept secret from non-initiates and performed behind closed doors in the spiritual godparent’s house-temple. The climax sees the initiate – with a shaved and purified head – kneel before the altar, while the obba (priest officiating the initiation) invokes the tutelary orisha and symbolically “fixes” it in the novice’s head (ori) through sacred chants, anointings, and the ritual laying on of hands. It is then said that the orisha is “born” in this person, who from that moment becomes an iyawó, a newborn in the faith.
The iyawó begins a one-year period during which they must follow strict rules of conduct and purification. They are notably required to wear only white from head to toe every day, symbolizing their pure rebirth and dedication to the orishas. They will avoid noisy places, abstain from certain foods, cannot be touched in public, and will wear bead necklaces (the elekes) in the colors of their protective orishas around their neck. This time of trial and discipline allows the initiate to rid themselves of negative influences from their past life and strengthen their bond with their orisha. It is a kind of spiritual retreat in the heart of daily life: for twelve months, the world sees an individual dressed in white, humble and reserved, while the initiate undergoes a profound inner transformation. After this cycle, a closing ceremony takes place – called the iyawó exit or ebó ceremony (concluding offering) – during which, surrounded by their community, the initiate lays down their white clothes and receives final confirmation of their status. They are then proclaimed omo-orisha, “child of the orisha”: omo Changó if their guardian is Changó, omo Yemayá for Yemayá, etc. From that moment, they are considered a full santero, a member of the community of initiates, with the possibility later to train new followers themselves. Initiation in Santería is therefore not just a rite of passage; it is the cornerstone around which the entire transmission of this religion is structured. It is thanks to it that, from generation to generation, the flame of the orishas remains lit, each new initiate becoming the living link in an unbroken spiritual chain since the African ancestors.
5. From Cuba to the world: Santería in diaspora
Although Santería was born on the island of Cuba, its influence has far exceeded Cuban borders through migration and the appeal it generates. As early as the 1940s-50s, Cuban workers and musicians introduced the rhythms of the bata drums to New York and Miami. But it was especially after the Cuban revolution of 1959 that the Cuban diaspora spread Santería throughout the Americas. In the 1960s-70s, tens of thousands of Cubans – political exiles fleeing Castro's regime or migrants seeking opportunities – settled in Florida, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and New York. They carried with them their cultural baggage: their saints, their orishas, and their altars. Soon, in the Cuban neighborhoods of Miami, such as Hialeah or Little Havana, botánicas (esoteric shops) opened, selling Santería necklaces, saint candles, and sacred herbs. Worship houses quietly organized in garages or backyards, where immigrants continued to celebrate Ochún and Obatalá as they did in Havana. Santería thus filled a spiritual and identity void for these uprooted people, recreating abroad the solidarity network of saint families. Gradually, it also attracted non-Cubans curious about it: Puerto Ricans, African Americans, and even white North Americans were initiated, drawn by the participatory and transcendental dimension of these Afro-Cuban rituals.
Inside a botanica. Source: Latina Lista
In the United States, however, the Santería religion had to adapt to a very different legal and cultural environment. A significant episode illustrates its gradual affirmation: in 1992, the Santería community of Hialeah (Florida) decided to establish an official place of worship, the Church of Lukumí Babalú Ayé. In response, the local city council tried to ban ritual animal sacrifice on its territory, clearly targeting Santería practices. This led to a landmark legal battle that concluded in 1993 before the United States Supreme Court. In its historic ruling Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah, the Supreme Court sided with the santeros: unanimously, it ruled that the Hialeah city ordinances specifically targeted Santería and violated the constitutional principle of free exercise of religion. This judicial victory established the legitimacy of Santería in North America. On the ground, it resulted in an explosion in the number of declared practitioners. By the mid-1990s, it was estimated that there were about 50,000 to 100,000 santeros just in South Florida (Miami and its region), and nearly a million followers across the United States. These impressive numbers include not only Cubans of origin but also many Latinos and Americans adopting the lucumí faith. Today, Santería ceremonies are regularly held in Los Angeles, New York, Mexico City, Caracas, and Madrid, carried by Cuban diasporas and their converts. The music of the bata drums resonates during multicultural parades, multicolored necklaces adorn necks far beyond the Caribbean, and some stars or prominent artists do not hesitate to consult a babalawo to guide their careers. Santería has thus become a global religion, present on several continents.
Nevertheless, it retains a distinctly Cuban grounding and flavor. Havana remains the Mecca of the santero cult: many foreigners go there to be initiated by renowned priests or to participate in major patron saint festivals. Cuban santeros, for their part, are proud to hold the most direct heritage of the Yoruba tradition, which they consider a national cultural treasure. Despite the distances, close ties unite the communities of Cuba and the diaspora: exchange visits, sending of sacred calabashes, invitations to officiate at ceremonies. Thus, from the Nigerian village where a slave once departed for Cuba to the modern metropolis where his great-grandson might well be the babalawo of a group of Americans, the unbroken chain of Santería continues to unfold, constantly adding new links.
6. Glossary
Find here the definitions of the traditional terms used in this article:
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Ache (or Aché): spiritual force transmitted by the orishas; vital energy present in rituals, sacred objects, and words.
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Babalawo: diviner priest specializing in the Ifá divination system, trained to interpret the messages of the orishas through sacred signs.
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Cabildo: religious and cultural organization founded during the colonial era by African slaves to maintain their spiritual practices.
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Changó (or Shangó): orisha of fire, thunder, war, and virility. He is also the patron of drums and dance.
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Elegguá (or Eleguá): messenger orisha, guardian of paths and crossroads, who is invoked first in every ritual.
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Eré: sacred doll representing the spiritual child of an initiate; used in certain rituals as a symbolic support.
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Ifá: complex divinatory system of Yoruba origin, based on interpreting signs (odu) by the babalawo. It is also a spiritual path in its own right.
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Iyawó: recently initiated person, subject to strict rules for one year after initiation (white clothing, specific behaviors, etc.).
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Obatalá: orisha of peace, wisdom, and human creation. He represents purity and order.
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Ochún (or Oshún): orisha of rivers, love, femininity, beauty, and prosperity.
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Orisha: deity or spiritual force from the Yoruba pantheon, each with traits, colors, days, and preferences.
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Ounfó: temple or religious house where Santería rites are celebrated.
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Santo: common term to designate an orisha, linked to the syncretism between Catholic saints and Yoruba deities.
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Santería: Afro-Cuban syncretic religion born from the fusion of Yoruba beliefs and Catholicism.
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Toque de santo: ritual musical ceremony with sacred drums (bàtá drums) to call and honor the orishas.
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Yemayá: orisha of the sea, mothers, gestation, and maternal protection.
Sources:
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Brown, David H. Santería Enthroned: Art, Ritual, and Innovation in an Afro-Cuban Religion. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
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Hagedorn, Katherine J. Divine Utterances: The Performance of Afro-Cuban Santería. Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001.
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Brandon, George. Santería from Africa to the New World: The Dead Sell Memories. Indiana University Press, 1993.
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Barnet, Miguel. La Regla de Ocha: The Cult of the Orichas in Cuba. Letras Cubanas, 1995.
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Encyclopædia Britannica, “Santería.”
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Smithsonian National Museum of American History, “Santería and Afro-Caribbean Religions.”
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Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage, “Orisha Worship in Cuba.”
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Interview with a Cuban babalawo, collected as part of the Voces del Espíritu project, University of Havana, 2018.
